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Information supplied by Elaine Parry, a qualified and accredited naturopath, medical herbalist and clinical nutritionist. Elaine practises at
The Buddha Bar Healing Clinic,
434 King Street, Newtown.
If you have any questions on herbal medicine or nutrition in general please contact her by clicking here. |
Aniseed
Aniseed (Pimpinella anisum), sometimes called anise, is the seed of an herbaceous flowering annual of the Umbelliferae family. It’s related to parsley, dill, cumin, caraway and fennel and is native to the eastern Mediterranean. It’s also long been highly valued for its medicinal and culinary qualities.
The distinctive liquorice flavour the crushed or whole seeds impart to food and drink has made it popular in dishes both sweet (English aniseed balls, Italian biscotti and the German Springerle biscuits) and savoury (Indian soups and casseroles), as well as a flavouring for liqueurs, such as absinthe and ouzo. It complements fish, pork and duck and is often combined with cinnamon and bay leaves.
Medicinally, aniseed promotes healthy digestion, helping to ease dyspepsia, intestinal colic and flatulence. In India, the seeds are often chewed after a meal, both as a digestive and to sweeten the breath. Aniseed combines well with other herbs; try equal parts fennel and caraway to help ease flatulent colic. Aniseed is an expectorant (clears excess mucus), and has anti-microbial and anti-spasmodic effects on the lungs, so may be used in cases of bronchitis, tracheitis, persistent cough and whooping cough. For women, aniseed may help to regulate oestrogen, and for breast-feeding mothers, its galactagogue action can help difficult lactation.
Cardamom
There are several varieties of cardamom: the two most commonly used being green (Elettaria cardamomum) and black (Amomum cardamomum). Both take the form of a small triangular seedpod, containing small green, brown or black seeds. The cardamom tree is a tall perennial, native to India and Sri Lanka, but which is now widely distributed throughout most of Asia, parts of Australia, Africa and South America.
Cardamom is closely related to ginger and tumeric and is used as a flavouring in food and drink, as well as a traditional medicine. Ayurvedic medicine has used cardamom (or elā) since possibly as far back as 1000 BC. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) also makes use of it. The Ancient Egyptians used it in religious ceremonies and  as an ingredient in perfume. The Ancient Greeks and Romans borrowed this tradition of using it in perfume – Greek poets even waxed lyrical over its sweet, exquisite aroma. Hippocrates mentions 'kardamomon’ – the word probably being derived from the Arab 'hehmama’, itself likely to have derived from the Sanskrit 'elā’, which means something hot and pungent.
Cardamom is the third most expensive spice after saffron and vanilla, but only a little is required to impart a strong flavour. It’s best stored in the pod as once the seeds are exposed or ground they quickly lose their flavour. All types of cardamom have a unique taste, with an intensely aromatic fragrance. Black cardamom has a distinct astringency. Not only is it a common ingredient in Indian curries and sweets but, perhaps surprisingly, it’s often used in Nordic baking, for example, in pulla, a Finnish sweet bread, and Julekake, a Scandinavian bread. In the Middle East, green cardamom powder is used as a spice for both sweet and savoury dishes, as well as a flavouring in coffee, where the ratio of coffee to cardamom can be as high as 60:40. India’s masala chai also boasts cardamom as a main ingredient. Other traditional uses include gin- and wine-making. Medicinally, the Ancient Greeks and Romans found cardamom to be a diuretic, and effective in the treatment of epilepsy, paralysis, spasticity and joint stiffness. Green cardamom is also used widely in South Asia as a traditional medicine to treat lung congestion, throat and gum infections, kidney stones, gallstones, and digestive disorders. (Chewing the seeds is reputed to aid digestion.) TCM uses black cardamom to treat intestinal problems, whilst western herbal medicine employs green cardamom to treat flatulent dyspepsia and griping pains. Its bitterness stimulates the appetite and increases the flow of saliva thus aiding digestion.
RECIPE Cardamom infusion
Pour a cup of boiling water onto 1 tsp of freshly crushed cardamom seeds and leave to infuse for 10-15 minutes. Drink 30 minutes before each meal to ease flatulence or to increase appetite.
Caraway
Caraway or Persian cumin (Carum carvi) is a biennial plant of the Apiaceae family, native to western Asia, northern Africa and Europe. It is a member of the group of aromatic, umbelliferous plants characterised by carminative (smooth muscle-relaxing) properties, such as anise, cumin, dill and fennel. However, it is cultivated less for the medicinal properties of its fruits, or so-called 'seeds', than for their widespread use in cuisine and in alcoholic liqueurs.
Caraway is frequently mentioned by the Ancients. For example, Dioscorides advised the oil to be taken by pale- faced girls! A curious superstition surrounded caraway in the Middle Ages: it was deemed to confer the gift of retention, preventing the theft of any object that contained it, and holding the thief in custody in the invaded house. It was also an ingredient in love potions, as it was believed to prevent lovers from straying! In the Middle Ages and Rennaissance, caraway was popular in cooking and alcoholic liqueurs. In Shakespeare’s Henry IV, Squire Shallow invites Falstaff to 'a pippin and a dish of caraways'. This custom of serving roasted apples with a saucer of caraway is still practised at Trinity College, Cambridge, and at some of the old-fashioned London Livery Dinners.
Caraway has a pungent, anise-like flavour and aroma that’s derived from the essential oils of carvone and limonene. It’s used widely as a spice in cakes and breads, especially rye bread in northern Europe. Caraway-seed cake was
traditionally given by farmers to their labourers at feasts at the end of the wheat-sowing. In Germany, the peasants flavour their cheese, sauerkraut, soups, casseroles, and bread with caraway and, in Scandinavia, polenta-like, black caraway bread is a rural tradition. A tea made from the seeds is used to remedy flatulent dyspepsia and intestinal colic, especially when combined with chamomile. For loss of appetite and diarrhoea, combineit with agrimony and bayberry. It may also help relieve period pain; aid the flow of milk during breastfeeding; and, when combined with white horehound, ease bronchitis and bronchial asthma.
Cayenne
Cayenne (Capsicum annuum) is a perennial, native to Central America, which grows up to a metre high. It’s part of the chilli or capsicum family, which incorporates paprika and jalapenos. Its dried bright red fruits make it one of the world’s hottest and most popular spices. It originates from the city of Cayenne, the capital of French Guiana, and can now be found growing in parts of Africa, Mexico, India, China and Japan. Christopher Columbus was responsible for introducing it to Europe. Since then, it’s been used for both culinary and medicinal purposes. The 17th century English herbalist, Nicholas Culpeper, prescribed it as one of his favourite spices for stomach ailments and digestive problems and to improve blood flow.
Many cuisines make extensive use of cayenne, notably South American, Mexican, Spanish, Middle Eastern, Indian and Chinese Szechwan, all of which are enhanced by this hot, fiery spice. Mexicans sometimes add it to cocoa, and you can even find it as an ingredient of dark chocolate.
 Cayenne contains capsaicinoids, which increase the flow of saliva and stomach acid and has been long used as a digestive aid. Herbalists use small amounts to improve digestive weakness and flatulent dyspepsia and colic. (Caution should be exercised in the case of peptic ulcers). Capsaicinoids also act to stimulate blood circulation and tonify arteries and capillaries. Problems associated with poor circulation such as chilblains, cold hands and feet and Raynaud’s syndrome may be improved with a regular dose of cayenne.
Cayenne has a diaphoretic action on the body, thus promoting sweating and reducing fever. Its stimulatory action can also aid the release of mucous from the respiratory tract, and so is good for congested sinuses. It can be effectively used to ward off colds. Try the following infusion if you feel a cold or flu coming on: Pour a cup of boiling water onto 1⁄2-1 teaspoon of cayenne and leave to infuse for 10 minutes. Mix a tablespoon of this infusion with a glass of hot water and drink regularly throughout the day. Lemon juice and honey may be added to taste.
Externally, cayenne may be used in a pain-relieving cream for rheumatoid and osteoarthritis and lumbago. When applied topically, the cream blocks the neurotransmitter known as Substance P – an inflammatory chemical responsible for transmitting pain signals to the brain. Once again, it is those remarkable capsaicinoids that promote this reaction.
Cinnamon
Although there are more than 50 different species of cinnamon, there are just two main varieties commonly used: Ceylon cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) and Chinese cinnamon (cinnamomum cassia, cinnamomum aromaticum) The former is native to Sri Lanka, as the name suggests, and is the ‘true’ cinnamon. The part used is the inner bark of the shoots of a tropical evergreen tree of the Lauraceae family. Cassia, or Chinese cinnamon, grows in China, Indonesia and Vietnam. It produces a greyish-brown powder as opposed to Ceylon cinnamon, which produces a yellowish-brown powder. The latter is more expensive and it has a milder, sweeter flavour. (The name cinnamon is derived from a Greek word meaning ‘sweet wood’).
Cinnamon is sold either ground as a powder or as quills or scrolls (strips of bark rolled into each other). The best varieties are pale and parchment like in appearance. Ground cinnamon has a stronger flavour than the quills, and can stay fresh for up to six months while the scrolls last longer. Both should be stored in a cool, dark, and dry place.
Cinnamon has been used medicinally since ancient times, as well as for magical, religious and culinary purposes. The Ancient Egyptians included cinnamon in their embalming mixture. In Ancient Rome, where cinnamon was highly-valued both for medicinal and culinary purposes, it was considered more precious than gold and silver and, as such, was regarded as a gift fit for emperors. In the first century AD, Pliny the Elder valued cinnamon at 15 times that of silver. The Roman Emperor, Nero, burned a year’s supply of cinnamon at his wife’s funeral - an extravagant gesture, signifying the depth of his grief. In China, cinnamon was used traditionally as incense in temples, and is highly valued in purification rituals even today. It is believed to increase concentration, whilst encouraging a peaceful, calm state for ritual work or meditation. During the Middle Ages, cinnamon was mixed with cloves and warm water, and placed in the sick rooms of victims of the Bubonic Plague.
Arabs once traded cinnamon and other spices along the old caravan trade routes, from whence it was  shipped to Europe. By the 18th century it was the Dutch who monopolised the cinnamon trade. Today, cinnamon’s use is widespread and it can be found as an ingredient in everything from toothpaste to coffee. Cinnamon is used as a flavouring in soft drinks, teas, hot chocolate, biscuits, cereals, granola bars, puddings, pastries, cakes, pies, and donuts. It is also a common ingredient in many Indian curries. In herbal medicine, it is often used as a flavouring to improve the taste of the tonic.
The medicinal properties of cinnamon were recognised by ancient Greek and Roman healers, such as Dioscorides and Galen. In medieval times, it was an ingredient in medicines for sore throats and coughs. Traditionally, cinnamon has also been used to alleviate indigestion, stomach cramps, intestinal spasms, nausea, flatulence and diarrhoea, and to improve appetite.
In Korea and China, cinnamon has been traditionally used to treat diabetes. Western herbal medicine also now recognises the anti-diabetic property of certain compounds in cinnamon. It seems they have an ability to increase insulin sensitivity by enhancing insulin receptor function and increase glucose uptake. Cinnamon is also a good source of chromium, an essential trace mineral that augments the action of insulin. Adding half a teaspoon of the powder to breakfast cereal may help to keep blood sugar levels stable.
Cinnamon is also a carminative (relieves flatulence and soothes intestinal spasm and pain), a spasmolytic (reduces or relieves smooth muscle spasm), a mild astringent (constricts mucous membranes and tissue), and an aromatic digestive (helps digestion through its pleasant taste and smell).
Key therapeutic uses for cinnamon include treating digestive weakness, dyspepsia, flatulent colic, nausea, diarrhoea, loss of appetite, and insulin resistance. Other indications may include the common cold, bronchitis, coughs and sore throats. Research also indicates a role for cinnamon in improving cognition, especially memory and information processing. And German studies claim that cinnamon suppresses bacteria associated with urinary tract infections and the fungus that causes yeast infections such as candida. But it seems that our forebears in Ancient China were way ahead of us regarding cinnamon’s positive effect on brain function, and even medieval peasants knew about its disease-fighting properties centuries before we did!
Caution should be exercised using cinnamon medicinally in pregnancy and breastfeeding, in gastro-oesophageal reflux, and in patients taking anti-diabetic medication. Cinnamon may cause unwanted effects in sensitive individuals.
Cloves
Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum, Eugenia aromaticum or Eugenia caryophyllata) are a popular spice used widely in cuisine. They grow on a tropical evergreen tree that reaches 8-12 metres tall. Native to the Spice Islands, or the Moluccas, of Indonesia, the clove tree is now also cultivated in Brazil, the West Indies, Mauritius, Madagascar, Vietnam, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka and Zanzibar. Cloves are in fact immature unopened flower buds that are harvested when their pale pink flesh has turned bright red. Once dried, they turn a deep rust-brown. They yield a pungent aroma and a sweet, pungent, astringent and strongly aromatic flavour.
The English name ‘clove’ derives from the Latin clavus, meaning ‘nail’, as the buds resemble small irregular nails. In the 4th century, spice traders regarded cloves as a precious commodity. Arab traders brought cloves to Europe, where they became common in Roman cuisine. Later, in the 17th and 18th centuries, the Dutch and the Portuguese tussled over native clove plantations in Indonesia. The ensuing Dutch monopoly was partly responsible for the Dutch colonisation of parts of South Asia.
The Chinese wrote of cloves as early as 200BC. Chinese physicians of the Han dynasty (207BC–220AD) recorded that the visitors to the court were required to hold cloves in their mouths while they addressed the emperor – presumably to disguise halitosis. Traditional Chinese physicians have long used cloves to treat indigestion, diarrhoea, hernias, ringworm and fungal infections. India’s traditional Ayurvedic healers have also long used cloves to treat respiratory and digestive ailments. Medieval German herbalists used them for gout, whilst early American Eclectic physicians used them to treat digestive complaints such as vomiting and nausea. The Eclectics were also the first to extract clove oil from the buds, which they used on the gums to relieve toothache.
Modern herbalists recommend cloves for not only toothache and halitosis, but also pharyngitis, laryngitis, intestinal worms, flatulence, abdominal bloating, nausea and dyspepsia. Cloves have a carminative action (relaxes the smooth muscle lining of the digestive tract). They also possess  antimicrobial and analgesic actions, making them powerful local antiseptics and mild anaesthetics. Dentists use clove oil as an anaesthetic as well as a disinfectant for root canal surgery. It is also recommended for the prevention of dental caries, and is found in traditional toothpaste and mouthwash. In tropical areas of Asia cloves are used extensively as a remedy for treating water-borne disease such as cholera and insect-borne diseases such as malaria.
Cloves have a wide medicinal, culinary, recreational and practical usage. Their pungent odour makes them an excellent insecticide, repelling both mosquitoes and other insects such as moths. In the Molucca Islands, a natural insect repellent is traditionally made by studding the skin of oranges with cloves, which are then hung around the house. The Indonesians probably use more cloves than any other nation, not only as insect repellent and in cuisine, but they also smoke it: cloves are mixed with tobacco to produce a special cigarette - a ubiquitous sight in Indonesia.
In cookery, cloves can easily overpower a dish, so should be used sparingly. In north European cuisine, whole cloves are often used to “stud” hams and pork, and even onions when making a bouillon. Cloves can be used to enhance the flavour of game, especially venison, wild boar and hare, as well as being used in a number of spice mixtures including the North African ras el hanout, curry powders, spice mixtures for mulled wine, and pickling spices. In North Africa, the Middle East and Asia cloves are regularly used in meat and rice dishes.
To make a tea, simply steep a few cloves in boiling water and allow them to infuse for ten minutes. The tea can then be strained and drunk whenever necessary. A single clove bud can also be used to relieve a toothache by placing it next to the painful tooth and keeping it there for some time. Alternatively, try soaking some cotton wool in clove oil and placing it near the tooth.
Coriander
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum), also known as cilantro or culantro in the Mediterranean and Latin America, is native to the Middle East and south-west Asia, although it has been long cultivated in North Africa and the Mediterranean, where it now grows wild. It is an annual plant belonging to the Apiaceae, or parsley, family and grows up to 50cm tall. The leaves vary in shape, ranging from broad-lobed at the base of the stem to slender and feathery at the top. The fruit, or seed, is globular in shape and 3-5mm in diameter.
Coriander leaves are perceived by some (especially those of European heritage) to have an unpleasant soapy taste – or more interestingly one of burnt rubber or crushed bedbugs! – whereas Asians generally describe them as fresh, tangy and even citrusy. Most agree the seeds have a nutty, spicy, slightly orange flavour when crushed.
It is the fresh leaves and dried seeds that are commonly used in the cuisine of the Middle East, the  Mediterranean, India, Central and South-east Asia, Mexico, Latin America and Africa, although the roots are also used in Thai dishes. Salsas, guacamole, dahls and curries all make good use of the leaves, whilst the seeds are an essential ingredient of dahls, curries and South Indian sambhars. They are often roasted or heated in a dry pan before grinding to enhance the flavour. (Ground seeds lose flavour quickly so are best stored whole). Garam masala is an example of a spice mix that contains ground coriander.
In European cuisine, the seeds are used less commonly today than in the past, but they can still be found in German sausages and Central European rye breads. In Belgium, coriander seeds are sometimes used to brew wheat beers.
Coriander’s culinary versatility can be partly attributed to its widespread mass cultivation. Evidence suggests that coriander may have been cultivated in Macedonia for its leaves and seeds in cooking and for the manufacture of raw perfume as far back as the Early Bronze Age. Remnants of coriander seeds have also been unearthed at Tutankhamun’s Tomb, and it is believed the Ancient Egyptians also cultivated the plant as it does not grow wild there. Coriander seeds even merit a biblical reference in the book of Exodus. Centuries later, in 1670 AD, coriander was introduced to colonial North America and became one of the first spices to be cultivated by the early British settlers.
The exact origin of the word ‘coriander’ is unclear: the Latin coriandrum most probably derives from the Ancient Greek koriannon, or possibly from the related Mycenaean Greek koriadnon. Other theories suggest that the word originated from the Greek word koris, meaning bedbug – due the association of the aroma of the leaves to crushed bedbugs. Most likely, however, koris is a derivation of karon, meaning cumin. The German names Wanzendill (bug’s dill) and Wanzenkümmel (bug’s caraway) may be translations of the Greek koris, or may have arisen independently as a consequence of the European distaste for the leaves.
As both an Ayurvedic and a traditional herb in European folkloric medicine, coriander possesses many medicinal qualities. The seeds have traditionally been used to prevent digestive disorders such as indigestion, dyspepsia, flatulence and loss of appetite, whilst the juice of the leaves has been used to treat nausea, colitis and liver disorders. The seeds are also reputed to reduce dysentery when soaked overnight in water and then taken with buttermilk in the morning. Reduction of fever, including typhoid fever is another reputed Ayurvedic use of the herb. In respiratory conditions, it is combined with herbs, such as ginger, to relieve infections and coughs. A coriander decoction is also used to treat menorrhagia (heavy bleeding during menstruation), kidney problems, high cholesterol, mouth ulcers, the common cold and inflammation. A mild decoction of the seed is even used traditionally as an eye-wash to ease irritated eyes.
Modern (Western) herbal medicine classifies coriander’s medicinal actions as carminative (relieves smooth muscle spasm) and anti-microbial. These two actions alone would account for much of its traditional usage. Although it is not commonly used as a herbal medicine today, the tea made from the seeds is still highly valued for its ability to calm the digestive system, easing colicky pain and spasm, and reducing diarrhoea, especially in children.
Coriander is also a source of vitamins and minerals, including phosphorus, calcium, iron and B complex vitamins and vitamin C. Regular use helps improve general health and prevent many of the vitamin deficiency diseases.
RECIPE Coriander seed tea infusion
Pour a cup of boiling water onto 1 tsp of bruised coriander seeds and leave to infuse for 5 minutes in a closed pot. Drink the tea before meals to aid digestion.
Cumin
Cumin (Cuminum cyminum) is the dried seed of a small umbelliferous herbaceous annual plant of the Apiaceae (Umbelliferae), or parsley, family. It grows to 30-50cm in height and has small white or pink flowers. It’s native to an area stretching from the eastern Mediterranean to India, prefering a hot, arid climate, although it can on occasion be found growing wild as far north as southern England.
The seeds closely resemble caraway seeds, being oblong in shape, longitudinally-ridged, and yellow-brown, but are lighter in colour and larger. Many European languages do not adequately distinguish between the two, often referring to cumin as ‘Roman caraway’. For example, in Finnish, caraway is called kumina and cumin is called roomankumina, whilst in Hungarian the word for caraway is kömény and cumin is known as római kömény. It is unclear if the word cumin derives from the Arabic al-Kammūn via the Spanish comino or from the Latin cuminum. To add further to the confusion, the city of Kerman in Persia may have given its name to the spice: most of ancient Persia’s cumin was produced in Kerman, a city locally known as Kermun which, it is believed, became corrupted to Kumun.
 Cumin has been in use for millennia. It was known to the Egyptians 5000 years ago as attested by the discovery of cumin seeds in the Pyramids. Cumin has also been found at some ancient Syrian archaeological sites, where they have been dated to the second millennium BC. Cumin is also mentioned in both the Old and New Testaments, as well as in ancient Greek and Roman texts. The Romans and Greeks used it medicinally, and apparently, cosmetically to induce a pallid complexion. They also made good use of it in their cuisine.
With the exception of Spain, the spice became unpopular in cuisine in the Middle Ages, although folklore has it that cumin kept chickens and lovers from wandering! It was also believed that a happy life awaited the bride and groom who carried cumin seeds throughout the wedding ceremony.
Cumin is the one of the world’s most popular spices. It possesses a pungent, powerful, sharp, and slightly bitter flavour, but a warm and earthy aroma, and is popular in Indian, Sri Lankan, Pakistani, North African, Middle Eastern, Mediterranean, Mexican, Cuban, Tex-Mex and Western Chinese cuisine. The seeds should be lightly roasted before being used to bring out the flavour. It complements other spices well and is therefore used in mixtures such as curry powder. In fact, it is an essential ingredient in many curries, chilli con carne, soups and stews where a strong spicy flavour is called for. It complements lamb and chicken dishes particularly well, but also serves as a flavouring ingredient for couscous and rice in the Middle East. In Mediterranean cuisine, Portuguese sausages and many Spanish dishes use cumin. Although not traditionally used in North European cooking, the Dutch use it in their Leyden cheese and, in Germany, it can be found in pickled cabbage, Sauerkraut and chutneys. Cumin, along with caraway seeds, also flavours the famous German liqueur, Kummel.
Cumin’s medicinal qualities are also long-established. Although it is not used in Western herbal medicine, it is still widely used as a traditional herbal remedy in Ayurvedic medicine. It is reputed to remedy digestive disorders due to its stomachic, carminative (relieves smooth muscle spasm) and astringent properties. Its bitter flavour stimulates the appetite by increasing the flow of pancreatic enzymes. It is useful in cases of dyspepsia, and diarrhoea, and may help to relieve flatulence and colic. In Sri Lanka, toasting cumin seeds and then boiling them in water makes a tea used to soothe acute stomach problems. It is also reputed to reduce morning sickness, increase lactation, and relieve inflammation. In the West, it is now used mainly in veterinary medicine, as a carminative.
RECIPE Cumin Spice Powder
1⁄2 tsp cumin
1 tsp star anise
2 tsp fresh coriander, chopped
1⁄2 tsp fresh chilli (or to taste)
1⁄2 tsp fresh ginger, chopped
1 tbsp olive oil
1 tsp lemon juice
METHOD
Pound all ingredients, except star anise, together in a mortar and pestle or grind in a coffee grinder. Decant to a bowl and stir in the lemon juice. Rub on fish, chicken and vegetables before cooking or use as a flavouring for soups and stews.
Dill
Dill (Anethum graveolens) is a tall, feathery, short-lived, hardy perennial herb of the parsley family. It is the only species in the genus Anethum. It grows to 40-60cm, and possesses slender stems and alternate, finely-divided, delicate leaves, about 10-20cm long. The leaves are similar, but slightly broader, than fennel. The flowers are white to yellow and hang in small umbels. The seeds, which are 4-5mm long and 1mm in diameter, have a longitudinally ridged surface. They should be collected when fully mature and brown in colour. Both dill seed and dill weed (the leaves) are commonly used in cuisine. It is only the seeds that are used medicinally.
Dill is native to Eastern Europe, southern Russia, China, Western Asia and is now widespread throughout the Mediterranean. Historical records show that it has been used – medicinally at least – since ancient times: Babylonian and Syrian herbalists used it, and Romans believed it to be an effective stimulant for gladiators. As its use spread to Northern Europe, it became – and still remains – popular as a culinary agent.
In fact, the name ‘dill’ is derived from the Old English word dile, which in turn, derives from the old Norse word dilla meaning ‘to lull or soothe’ because, not only was it used to lull babies to sleep but also, apparently, as an antidote to witchcraft and sorcery.
In modern times, both the fresh and dried dill leaves and the dried seeds are used throughout the Baltic, Scandinavia, Germany, Russia and Central Asia. Both the seeds and the weed are used widely in pickling and fish dishes, especially gravlax (cured marinated salmon), borscht (beetroot soup) and other soups such as cold cucumber soup. It also goes well with fresh white cheese, eggs, sour cream,  yogurt, potatoes, herring, tuna, green beans, dried beans, zucchini and, of course, cucumber and beetroot. The seed’s strong, pungent flavour makes it an excellent pickling agent and, for this reason, it’s an important ingredient when seasoning vinegar for pickling. They are also often used in Europe to flavour sauerkraut.
Its use is not confined to Europe and parts of Central Asia, however, as the Palestinians use dill seed in cold dishes such as fattoush and pickles. In South-East Asia, the English term for dill is Laotian coriander or Lao cilantro. In Lao cuisine, it is typically used in mok pa (steamed fish in banana leaf) and several coconut milk-based curries containing fish or prawns. Dill seeds are even used in Indian cooking, particularly in dishes such as yellow Moong dal.
The seeds are a good source of calcium, manganese, iron, and magnesium. They are almost identical in appearance to aniseed, fennel and caraway seeds. In fact, they have a pungent flavour reminiscent of the latter. Dill weed has a similar but mellower, sweeter and fresher flavour. It’s best used when very fresh, as it loses its flavour rapidly and looks raggedy after a couple of days. It can also lose its flavour quickly if dried. However, freeze-dried dill leaves keep their flavour relatively well for a few months. Growing your own dill is always the best as it’s a very hardy and easy to grow.
The reputed calming and soothing properties of dill are due to its carminative action, largely due to the essential oil constituent, carvone. Dill water has long been used by nursing mothers in an attempt to relieve colic in babies. It is certainly an excellent remedy for flatulence and colic, and it is the preferred herb of modern herbalists when treating colicky children. Its galactogogue action also means that it will stimulate the flow of milk in nursing mothers. Chewing the seeds is a remedy for halitosis and they may help relieve flatulence if chewed before a meal.
RECIPE Dill Pickles
Choose the smallest pickling cucumbers in late summer.
12 small cucumbers, scrubbed and chilled
4 large sprigs dill
2 or more grapevine leaves
1 sprig tarragon
4 cloves garlic
1 bay leaf
1 small dried chilli
4 black peppercorns, coarsely crushed
pinch of dill seeds
250g salt
METHOD
Place all ingredients in a saucepan and cover with boiling water. Put lid on pan and leave to cool completely. When cold, pour contents into a hot, sterilised jar, ensuring that the brine covers the cucumbers. Leave for two weeks before using and refrigerate once opened. Remove any scum that may form on the top.
Garlic
 Garlic (Allium sativum) is a member of the Liliaceae family and is closely related to the onion, leek, shallot and chive. Garlic is arranged in a head, called the ‘bulb’, averaging about 5cm in height and diameter and consisting of many small, separate cloves. Both the cloves and the entire bulb are encased in paper-like sheathes that can be white, off-white or pinkish.
Garlic is among the few herbs with universal usage and recognition, its use as both a food and a medicine having been documented in many cultures for thousands of years, dating at least as far back to the time when the pyramids of Giza were constructed. It is also mentioned in the Bible and the Talmud. Hippocrates, Galen, Pliny the Elder, and Dioscorides all mention the use of garlic for many conditions, including parasites, respiratory problems, poor digestion, and low energy. Galen even purports it to be the “rustic’s theriac” or cure-all. Its use in China was first mentioned in 510 AD. In more modern times, its use has been documented in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis in the early 20th century and gangrene in the two World Wars.
Garlic is widely used as a seasoning or condiment for its pungent flavour. It is a basic ingredient in many culinary dishes of various regions, especially the Middle East and Mediterranean, northern Africa, Asia, and Central and South America. Traditionally, garlic was rarely used in English cuisine, but the pervasive influence of Mediterranean cuisine on British cookery since the 1950s has secured an important place for garlic in an otherwise fairly bland style of cooking.
As well as its medicinal and culinary usage, garlic has played an important role in folklore and mythology, being regarded as a force for both good and evil. In ancient Greece, garlic was placed on piles of stones at crossroads, as a supper for the god, Hecate. It is said there are some Ancient Egyptian tribes who worshiped the onion are said to have had an aversion to both onions and garlic. In the Old Testament, it was mentioned that, after Satan had left the Garden of Eden, garlic arose in his left footprint and onion in the right.
In Europe, garlic has traditionally been used for protection - perhaps owing to its age-old reputation as a potent preventative medicine, guarding against infections and symptoms associated with mental illness. Central European folklore considered garlic a powerful ward against evil spirits such as demons, werewolves and vampires. To ward off vampires, garlic was either worn, hung in windows, or rubbed on chimneys and keyholes. The practice of hanging garlic – along with lemon and red chilli – at the door to ward off potential evil is still common in parts of India today. In both Hinduism and Jainism, garlic is considered stimulating to the body. Some devout Hindus avoid using garlic in the preparation of foods for religious festivities and events. Followers of Jainism avoid eating garlic and onion.
The key constituent of garlic are sulphur compounds such as alliin, which is what gives it its pungent odour and flavour. When crushed, alliin forms allicin, a powerful antibacterial and antifungal compound. Garlic also boasts several other medicinal actions including being antiparasitic, anthelmintic (kills or helps expels worms), antiplatelet (anti-clotting), antioxidant, hypotensive (reduces blood pressure) and hypocholesterolaemic (reduces cholesterol).
The daily use of garlic, either culinary or as therapy, aids and supports the body in many ways, probably more so than any other herb. It is one of the most effective antimicrobial plants on the planet, acting on bacteria, viruses and intestinal parasites. In 1858, Louis Pasteur observed garlic’s antibacterial activity. The Cherokee Indians of North America are reported to have used garlic as an expectorant for coughs. As it contains a volatile oil, which is excreted via the lungs, it’s useful in treating colds, influenza, catarrh, bronchitis and other respiratory infections. It combines well with echinacea and andrographis for microbial infections. In the gut, garlic supports the growth of good bacterial flora, whilst also killing parasitic organisms. If taken regularly over a long period of time, garlic may also reduce blood pressure via reducing platelet aggregation and cholesterol levels.
Some people are allergic to garlic and other species of the Liliaceae family. Symptoms may include diarrhoea and an irritable bowel, mouth and throat ulcers, nausea, indigestion, vomiting and breathing problems. Other cautions with regular, therapeutic use include thinning of the blood and an increased risk of bleeding, particularly during pregnancy, childbirth and post-surgery. Culinary use, however, is safe for regular consumption.
If you consume garlic regularly, you may wish to alleviate halitosis by adding some fresh parsley to the recipe, and for this reason, parsley is included in many recipes containing garlic such as garlic butter, pesto, pistou and persillade.
Ginger
Ginger (Zingiber officinale) belongs to the Zingiberaceae family and is related to turmeric, cardamom and galangal. It is a perennial creeping plant, with a thick tuberous rhizome and bright green lance-shaped leaves 15-20cm long. It has green flowers marked with purple speckles and likes a tropical climate with both a heavy wet and a hot dry.
The name ‘ginger’ derives from the French gingembre (derived from the medieval Latin ginginer), which supplanted the Old English gingifere. The ultimate origin appears to be the Dravidian (Tamil) inji ver, meaning root of inji.
Cultivation began in South East Asia and has since spread to East Africa and the Caribbean. The tuber or rhizome (not the root) is the part of the plant that is commonly used in cooking, medicine and wine and beer-making.
Ginger has a long history of folk, medicinal and culinary use. Its reputed aphrodisiac qualities were long ago recognised and acknowledged in the Karma Sutra. In the Melanesian Islands of the South Pacific it’s apparently used to gain a woman’s affection. However, in the Philippines it is chewed to expel evil spirits!
Medicinally, its diaphoretic action (ability to induce sweating) was well-regarded even as far back as Tudor times: Henry VIII instructed the mayor of London to use ginger’s diaphoretic qualities as a medicine to treat victims of The Plague. It was also traditionally brewed in a tea to treat coughs and colds. Ginger ale and ginger beer have been recommended for centuries to settle stomachs. In parts of China, "ginger eggs" (scrambled eggs with finely diced ginger root) is a common home remedy for coughing.
Ginger’s characteristic odour and pungent flavour is due to the volatile oils zingerone, shogoals and gingerols. Young rhizomes are juicy and fleshy with a very mild taste, and are ideal for making ginger tea. Honey, sliced orange or lemon may be added. Mature ginger roots are dry and fibrous; the juice is extremely potent.
Ginger is often used in Indian curries and dhals and is a quintessential ingredient of many South Asian dishes, as well as Chinese and Japanese cuisine. In China, sliced, chopped or whole ginger root is often paired with fish and meat dishes. Ginger tea is also commonly drunk in China. In Japan, ginger is pickled to make beni shoga and gari, or grated and used raw on tofu or noodles. In the traditional Korean kimchi, ginger is finely minced and added to the spicy paste just before fermenting. In the West, ginger has traditionally been mainly used in sweet foods and beverages such as ginger ale, green ginger wine, gingerbread, ginger biscuits, and parkin cake. The French produce a ginger liqueur called Canton. On Africa’s Ivory Coast, ginger is ground and mixed with orange, pineapple and lemon to produce a refreshing drink, and in the Caribbean, it is a well-known ingredient of the Christmas drink sorrel and in Jamaican ginger cake. In Arabic-speaking countries and parts of the Middle East, powdered ginger, or zanjabil, is used as a spice flavouring for coffee and milk. Ginger also acts as a useful food preservative.
GInger has numerous medicinal properties including it being an anti-emetic (anti-nausea), carminative (relieves flatulence and soothes intestinal muscle spasm), sialogogue (increases production of saliva), peripheral circulatory stimulant, anti-inflammatory, anti-platelet, diaphoretic and aromatic digestive. As a peripheral circulatory stimulant, it may be useful for poor circulation, chilblains and cramps. In fever, its diaphoretic action promotes sweating, so it is useful for acute infections, including the common cold. As a carminative, it promotes gastric secretion and is useful in dyspepsia, flatulence, abdominal bloating and colic. Its anti-emetic properties make is useful for the treatment of nausea, morning and travel sickness. As a gargle, it may be effective in relieving sore throats. Topically, ginger may help osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, rheumatism, fibrositis and muscle sprains and spasms.
In herbal medicine, ginger can be used to disguise the taste of other herbs, but is also frequently added to mixtures to promote circulation, which, in turn, increases the effectiveness of the other herbs in the mixture.
Although ginger is generally recognised as a safe herb, it does interact with some medications, including Warfarin. Its use is contraindicated in those suffering from gallstones – as it promotes the production of bile – and it should be used with caution in peptic ulceration and during pregnancy.
RECIPE Fresh Ginger Limeade
Makes one tall glass
• 5 tbsp freshly-squeezed lime juice
• 4 stbsp sugar
ª 1⁄4 -1⁄2 tsp fresh ginger, grated
• ice cubes
METHOD Mix lime juice and sugar in a small bowl. Put grated ginger in a small strainer. Lower the bottom of the strainer into sweetened lime juice. Stir ginger around with a spoon. Lift strainer and discard any remaining ginger pulp. Pour concentrate into a tall glass. Add 3⁄4 cup water and ice cubes. Stir.
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